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social perception |
the study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people |
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attributions |
causal judgements about why an event or behavior occurred |
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attribution theories |
models that attempt to delineate the processes underlying judgements of cause |
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two types of attributions |
1) internal |
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internal attribution |
making a judgement about an event/behavior based on a person's personality, traits, disposition, etc |
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external attribution |
making a judgement about an event/behavior based on a person's environment, situation, or circumstance |
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Covariation Model of Attribution |
an attribution theory proposing that we make causal judgements by determining whether a particular behavior correlated with a person, a situation, or some combination of the two |
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What are the three factors used to determine attributions using the covariation model? |
distinctiveness |
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distinctiveness |
the factor in the covariation model of attribution which questions: "Does this person do this behavior in all situations or just in this situation?" |
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consistency |
the factor in the covariation model of attribution which questions: "Does this person normally do this behavior in this situation?" |
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consensus |
the factor in the covariation model of attribution which questions: "Do most people engage in this behavior in this situation?" |
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false consensus effect |
the tendency to assume that other people share our own attitudes and behaviors to a greater extent than is actually the case |
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True or False: People tend to overestimate the consensus when perceiving/determining attributions |
True; this is an example of the false consensus effect |
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Discounting Principle |
a rule of attribution which states that the perceived role of a cause will be discounted (reduced, diminished) if other plausible causes are also present |
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Augmentation Principle |
a rule of attribution which states that the perceived role of a cause will be augmented (increased) if other factors are present that would work against the behavior |
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"He wrecked because it was rainy, not because he's an unsafe driver".... this is an example of the ___________ ___________ |
This is an example of the Discounting Principle |
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"He succeeded in spite of all the obstacles he had to overcome".... this is an example of the ___________ ___________ |
This is an example of the Augmentation Principle |
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The Correspondence Bias (Fundamental Attribution Error) |
The tendency to assume that people's actions and words reflect their personality, their attitudes, or some other internal factor rather than external or situation factors |
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Dual-Process Models involve what two types of information processing? |
Automatic & Controlled Information Processing are both involved in these. |
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What are 3 conditions that are needed for controlled information processing to occur? |
Plenty of Time |
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Nonverbal Behavior |
actions and cues that communicate meaning in ways other than by words; an important determinant of how we interpret other people's words and actions |
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what are some examples of nonverbal behaviors? |
- facial expressions |
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True or False: |
False; when verbal and nonverbal cues are present and in conflict with one another, nonverbal cues tend to take precedence |
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True or False: |
True |
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Cultures differ in their _______ ______ (i.e. norms for expressing emotions, differences in nonverbal gestures, differences in personal space norms) |
display rules |
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Self Perception |
an awareness of the characteristics that constitute one's self; self-knowledge that we use to make judgements about our abilities, ambitions, and attitudes |
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The Looking Glass Self |
the tendency to internalize other people's judgements about us into our own self-concept |
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Self-concept correlates with ________ ______, rather than actual appraisals (intentions) of other people |
_______ correlates with perceived appraisals, rather than actual appraisals (intentions) of other people |
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Social Comparison |
The process of comparing ourselves to others in order to judge the self |
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We tend to compare ourselves to _______ others to protect our self-worth |
We tend to compare ourselves to similar others to protect our ________ |
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Lateral Social Comparison |
comparison with people who are similar to us |
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Upward Social Comparison |
Comparison with people who are better off or more skilled than we are (helps us ______) |
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Downward Social Comparison (helps us feel better) |
Comparison with people who are worse off or less skilled than we are (helps us _______) |
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During our in-class experiment in which we were asked to list either 6 or 12 events when we were assertive, as a class we engaged in __________ social comparison. How do we know that happened? |
During our in-class assertiveness experiment, we engaged in downward _____ ______. We know this because we tended to rank ourselves above the 50th percentile (and in a truly "normal" sample we'd have been really close to the 50th percentile) |
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relative deprivation |
a feeling of anger or resentment about our outcomes based on comparisons with better-off others (i.e. this can be a pitfall of upward social comparison) |
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Self-Evaluation Maintenance Theory |
this theory holds that one's self-concept can be threatened by another individual's behavior |
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Why two factors determine the level of threat to one's self-concept when another individual's behavior is having an impact on it? |
- the closeness of the other individual (how much he/she means to you) - the personal relevance of the behavior (is it really important that you can behave as well as or better than this other person?) |
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3 ways to resolve tension created when another person outperforms oneself in a cherished domain... |
1) distance oneself from that person 2) change one's self-definition of how important the behavior is 3) improving performance to outshine the other person's performance |
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Self-Perception Theory |
a theory proposing that we often judge our own internal states by reviewing our past behavior and inferring internal states consistent with our behavior unless there were clear external causes of our behavior |
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True or False: |
True; if one has a well-defined attitude about something, it is unlikely that he/she will have to infer about his/her internal states by reviewing past behaviors... it's a "No Brainer" However, ambiguous attitudes can be swayed by self-perception... if the attitude is not already deeply ingrained, it's more likely that one will review his/her past behavior and make a subsequent inference about his/her internal view of the topic |
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The Overjustification Effect |
An inference that we performed a potentially enjoyable activity for external reasons (e.g. for a reward or due to a threat) rather than because we enjoyed it. |
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The Overjustification Effect is an example of the ________ ________. |
The ___________ ______ is an example of the discounting principle. |
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Giving kids special pens as a reward (something perceived as 'special' to play with) caused an overjustification effect. The kids then tended to view the pens as a way of getting a reward (_____ motivation) instead of being _________ motivated to use them. |
Giving kids special pens as a reward (something perceived as 'special' to play with) caused an ___________ ________. The kids then tended to view the pens as a way of getting a reward (external _____) instead of being intrinsically ______ to use them. |
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Unrealistic Self-Evaluation |
Most people rate themselves as "above average" on most dimensions (honest, fair, loyal, considerate, less lazy, less deceitful, more polite, more capable), especially in comparison with our own group |
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Bias Blindspot |
The tendency to think that biases and errors in judgements are more common in others than in ourselves. |
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Unrealistic Optimism Bias |
People's tendency to think that good things are more likely to happen to them and bad things are less likely to happen to them (as opposed to the likelihood they'd happen to their peers); this is a form of self-enhancement |
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Unrealistic Optimistic Bias (a form of self-enhancement).... why does it occur? |
This occurs mainly because we overestimate our chances of common positive events and underestimate our chances of rare negative events |
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True or False: |
True; western cultures' independent individualistic focus may contribute to unrealistically positive self-evaluations |
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True or False: |
True |
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How did western/eastern cultural groups differ in their self-enhancement? |
The two cultures self-enhanced even moreso on the traits that are most valued in their culture (individualistic vs collectivistic) |
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True or False: |
False (the opposite is true!... feelings of interdependency minimize the perceived difference between the self and others, so people within such a culture will be less likely to exhibit optimistic biases) |
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Self-Efficacy |
The belief that one is capable of performing a particular behavior that is required for a certain goal |
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Illusions of Control |
we often overestimate our control of situations and events... might be adaptive by encouraging persistence OR could be maladaptive: repeated failure can cause learned helplessness or depression and false hope syndrome can occur) |
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Learned Helplessness |
a state of apathy in which we simply give up trying to achieve our goals; possible cause of depression |
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False Hope Syndrome |
The tendency to try repeatedly but unsuccessfully to achieve a goal because of unrealistic expectations about the likelihood of success |
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Self-Discrepancy Theory |
A theory proposing that perceived differences between the actual self and the ideal self produce depression (low self-esteem), and perceived differences between the actual self and the ought self produce anxiety |
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What are the "3 selfs" in the Self-Discrepancy Theory? |
Actual Self |
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Actual Self |
a conception of the self describing our perception of how we really are |
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Ideal Self |
A conception of the self describing our perception of how we would ideally like to be; determined by our hopes, wishes, and dreams, as well as those that OTHERS have for us |
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Ought Self |
A conception of our self describing our perception of how we think we should or ought to be; parallels a conscience; determined by our sense of duty, responsibility, or obligation |
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Perceived differences between the Actual Self and the Ideal Self can lead to _________. |
Depression can be caused by the perception of differences in the ____ Self and the ____ Self. |
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Perceived differences between the Ideal Self and the Ought Self can lead to ________. |
Anxiety and guilt can be caused by the perception of differences in the _____ Self and the ____ Self. |
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Self-Presentation / Impression Management |
The deliberate control of our public behaviors to create a certain impression; we engage in self-presentation in many different settings with many different people |
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True or False: |
True (but we also don't always behave openly and without restraint!!!) |
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What are the 2 main self-presentation goals that are almost always (automatically) a part of our public persona? |
1) the goal of appearing likeable |
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Ingratiation |
Behavior designed to make someone like us |
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Self-Promotion |
Behavior designed to make someone respect us |
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Self-Handicapping |
The tendency to seek, create, or claim inhibitory factors that interfere with performance and thus provide an explanation for potential failure |
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If we fail, we often place cause on an _____ attribution (aka _____ handicap) |
If we ____, we often place cause on an external ____ (aka external ________) |
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If we succeed, we often place cause on an ________ attribution (despite the external _________) |
If we ______, we often place cause on an internal attribution (despite the ______ handicap) |
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Actor-Observer Bias |
a pattern of differences in attributions in which actors tend to make external attributions for their own behavior, whereas observers tend to make internal attributions for the same actions |
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Give an example of the actor-observer bias |
if we are rude, it's because we're having a bad day... |
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List some nonverbal indicators of lying (deceit) |
- increase in voice pitch (higher/squeakier) |
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True or False: |
False; correctly identifying ____ generally exceeds chance rates (50%) but rarely goes higher than 70% accuracy |
