AP Psychology Unit 4

Developmental psychology

the study of progressive changes in behavior & abilities from conception to death

Heredity
("nature")

the transmission of physical & psychological characteristics from parents to offspring through genes

Chromosomes

thread-like "colored bodies" in the nucleus of each cell that are made up of DNA

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid, a molecular structure that contains coded genetic info.

genes

specific areas on a strand of DNA that carry hereditary info.

polygenic characteristics

personal traits or physical properties that are influenced by many genes working in combination

dominant gene

a gene whose influence will be expressed each time the gene is present

recessive gene

a gene whose influence will be expressed only when it is paired w/ a 2nd recessive gene

human growth sequence

the pattern of physical development from conception to birth

temperament

the physical core of personality, including emotional and perceptual sensitivity, energy levels, typical mood, and so forth

environment
("nurture")

the sum of all external conditions affecting development, including especially the effects of learning

sensitive period

during development, a period of increased sensitivity to environmental influences. Also, a time during which certain events must take place for normal development to occur.

congenital problems

problems or defects that originate during prenatal development in the womb

genetic disorders

problems caused by defects in the genes or inherited characteristics

teratogen

radiation, a drug, or other substance capable of altering fetal development in ways that cause birth defects

medicated birth

the common practice in Western medicine of giving painkilling drugs during labor and birth

prepared childbirth

a collection of techniques designed to manage discomfort and facilitate birth so that the use of painkilling drugs can be avoided or minimized

dendrites

nerve-cell fibers that receive incoming messages from other nerve cells

synapse

a connection point b/w 2 nerve cells over which messages pass

deprivation

in development, the loss or withholding of normal stimulation, nutrition, comfort, love, and so forth; a condition of lacking

enrichment

deliberately making an environment more novel, complex, and perceptually or intellectually stimulating

developmental level

an individual's current state of physical, emotional, and intellectual development

maturation

the physical growth & development of body & nervous system

readiness

a condition that exists when maturation has advanced enough to allow the rapid acquisition of a particular skill

basic emotions

the 1st distinct emotions to emerge in infancy

social smile

smiling elicited by social stimuli, such as seeing a parent's face

social development

the development of self-awareness, attachment to parents or caregivers, & relationships w/ other children & adults

social referencing

observing others in social situations to obtain info. or guidance

ethologist

a person who studies the natural behavior patterns of animals

imprinting

a rapid & relatively permanent type of learning that occurs during a limited period early in life

separation anxiety disorder

severe & prolonged distress displayed by children when they are separated from their parents or caregivers

emotional attachment

an especially close emotional bond that infants form with their parents, caregivers or others

separation anxiety

uneasiness displayed by infants when they are separated from their parents or caregivers

secure attachment

a stable & positive emotional bond

insecure-avoidant attachment

an anxious emotional bond marked by a tendency to avoid reunion w/ a parent or caregiver

insecure-ambivalent attachment

an anxious emotional bond marked by both a desire to be with a parent or caregiver & some resistance to being reunited

surrogate mother

a substitute mother (often an inanimate dummy in animal research)

contact comfort

a pleasant & reassuring feeling human & animal infants get from touching or clinging to something soft & warm, usually their mother

solitary play

playing alone

cooperative play

play in which two or more children must coordinate their actions; if children don't cooperate the game ends

affectional needs

emotional needs for love & affection

maternal influences

the aggregate of all psychological effects mothers have on their children

caregiving styles

identifiable patterns of parental caretaking & interaction w/ children

parental influences

the aggregate of all psychological effects fathers have on their children

authoritarian parents

parents who enforce rigid rules & demand strict obedience to authority

overly permissive parents

parents who give little guidance, allow too much freedom, or do not require the child to take responsibility

authoritative parents

parents who supply firm & consistent guidance combined w/ love and affection

power assertion

the use of physical punishment or coercion to enforce child discipline

withdrawal of love

withholding affection to enforce child discipline

management techniques

combining praise, recognition, approval, rules & reasoning to enforce child discipline

self-esteem

regarding oneself as a worthwhile person; a positive evaluation of onself

cooing

spontaneous repetition of vowel sounds by infants

babbling

the repetition by infants of meaningless language sounds
(including both vowel and consonant sounds)

biological predisposition

the presumed hereditary readiness of humans to learn certain skills, such as how to use language, or a readiness to behave in particular ways

signal

in early language development, any behavior, such as touching, vocalizing, gazing, or smiling, that allows nonverbal interaction & turn-taking b/w parent & child

parentese

a pattern of speech used when talking to infants, marked by a higher-pitched voice, short, simple sentences, repetition, slower speech & exaggerated voice inflections

transformation

the mental ability to change the shape or form of a substance (such as clay or water) & to perceive that its volume remains the same

assimilation

in Piaget's theory, the application of existing mental patterns to new situations (that is, the new situation is assimilated to existing mental schemes)

accommodation

in Piaget's theory, the modification of existing mental patterns to fit new demands (that is, mental schemes are changed to accommodate new info. or experiences)

sensorimotor stage

stage of intellectual development during which sensory input & motor responses become coordinated

object permanence

concept, gained in infancy, that objects continue to exist even when they are hidden from view

preoperational stage

period of intellectual development during which children being to use language and think symbolically, yet remain intuitive and egocentric in their thought

intuitive thought

thinking that makes little or no use of reasoning and logic

Theory of mind

a child's current understanding of the mind, including the desires, beliefs, intentions & feelings of others

Egocentric thought

thought that is self-centered & fails to consider the viewpoints of others

concrete operational stage

period of intellectual developmental during which children become able to use the concepts of time, space, volume and number, but in ways that remain simplified & concrete, rather than abstract

conservation

in Piaget's theory, mastery of the concept that the weight, mass & volume of matter remains unchanged (is conserved) even when the shape or appearance of objects changes

reversibility of thought

recognition that relationships involving equality or identity can be reversed (for example, if A X B, the B X A)

Formal operations stage

period of intellectual development characterized by thinking that includes abstract, theoretical & hypothetical ideas

Abstract principles

concepts & ideas removed from specific examples & concrete solutions

Hypothetical possibilities

suppositions, guesses, or projections

Forced teaching

accelerated learning at a pace dictated by an adult

Zone of proximal development

refer to the range of tasks a child cannot yet master alone but that she or he can accomplish with the guidance of a more capable partner

scaffolding

the process of adjusting instruction so that it is responsive to a beginner's behavior & supports the beginner's efforts to understand a problem or gain a mental skill

consistency

with respect to child discipline, the maintenance of stable rules of conduct

You-message

a message that threatens, accuses, bosses, lectures, or criticizes another person

I-message

A message that states the effect someone else's behavior has on you

Natural consequences

the effects that naturally tend to follow a particular behavior

Natural consequences

the effects that naturally tend to follow a particular behavoir

Logical consequences

reasonable consequences that are defined by parents

life stages

widely recognized periods of life corresponding to broad phases of development

developmental task

any skill that must be mastered, or personal change that must place, for optimal development

developmental milestone

a significant turning point or marker in personal development

life-span perspective

the study of continuity & change in behavior over a lifetime

psychosocial dilemma

a conflict b/w personal impulses and the social world that affects development

trust versus mistrust

a conflict early in life centered on learning to trust others and the world

autonomy versus shame and doubt

a conflict created when growing self-control (autonomy) is pitted against feelings of shame or doubt

initiative versus guilt

a conflict centered around learning to take initiative while overcoming feelings of guilt about doing so

industry versus inferiority

a conflict in middle childhood centered around lack of support for industrious behavior, which can result in feelings of inferiority

identity versus role confusion

a major conflict of adolescence, involving the need to establish a consistent personal identity

intimacy versus isolation

the challenge in early adulthood of establishing intimacy with friends, family, a lover, or a spouse versus experiencing a sense of isolation

generativity versus stagnation

a conflict of middle adulthood in which stagnant concern for oneself is countered by interest in guiding the next generation

integrity versus despair

a conflict in old age b/w feelings of personal integrity & the despair that occurs when previous life events are viewed w/ regret

anorexia nervosa

active self-starvation or sustained loss of appetite that has psychological origins

pica

eating or chewing on inedible objects or substances such as chalk, ashes, and the like

enuresis

an inability to to control urination, particularly with regard to bed-wetting

encopresis

a lack of bowel control;
"soiling"

delayed speech

speech that beings well after the normal age for language development has passed

stuttering

chronic hesitation or stumbling in speech

learning disorder

any problem with thinking, perception, language, attention, or activity levels that tends to impair learning ability

dyslexia

an inability to read with understanding, often caused by a tendency to misread letters (by seeing their mirror images, for instance)

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD)

a behavioral problem characterized by short attention span, restless movement, & impaired learning capacity

behavior modification

applying principles of learning to change or eliminate maladaptive or abnormal behavior

conduct disorder

a pattern in which children consistently violate rules & behave aggressively & destructively

autism

a severe disorder involving mutism, sensory spin-outs, sensory blocking, tantrums, unresponsiveness to others and other difficulties

echolalia

a compulsion, sometimes observed in autistic children, to repeat everything that is said

adolescence

the culturally defined period b/w childhood & adulthood

puberty

the biologically defined period during which a person matures sexually & become capable of reproduction

growth spurt

an often dramatic acceleration in physical growth that coincides with puberty

social markers

visible or tangible signs that indicate a person's social status or role

imaginary audience

the group of people a person imagines is watching (or will watch) his or her actions

peer group

a group of people who share similar social status

foreclosed identity

a premature end to the search for personal identity

moral development

the development of values, beliefs, & thinking abilities that act as a guide regarding what is acceptable behavior

preconventional moral reasoning

moral thinking based on the consequences of one's choices or actions (punishment, reward, or an exchange of favors)

conventional moral reasoning

moral thinking based on a desire to please others or to follow accepted rules and values

postconventional moral reasoning

moral thinking based on carefully examined and self-chosen moral principles

transition period

time span during which a person leaves an existing life pattern behind & moves into a new pattern

menopause

the female "change of life" signaled by the end of regular monthly menstrual periods

Andropause

a gradual decline in testosterone levels in older men

climacteric

a point during late middle age when males experience a significant change in health, vigor, or appearance

empty nest syndrome

psychological disturbance experienced by some women after their last child leaves home

biological aging

physiological changes that accompany growing older

maximum life span

the biologically defined maximum number of years humans can live under optimal conditions

gerontologist

one who scientifically studies aging and its effects

fluid abilities

innate, nonlearned abilities based on perceptual, motor, or intellectual speed & flexibility

crystallized abilities

abilities that a person has intentionally learned; accumulated knowledge & skills

life expectancy

the average number of years a person of a given sex, race, & nationality can expect to live

disengagement theory of aging

theory stating that it is normal for older people to withdraw from society & from roles they held earlier

activity theory

theory stating that the best adjustment to aging occurs when people remain active mentally, socially, and physically

ageism

discrimination or prejudice based on a person's age

Thanatologist

a specialist who studies emotional & behavior reaction to death and dying

Near-death experience
NDE

a pattern of subjective experiences that may occur when a person is clinically death & then resuscitated

bereavement

period of emotional adjustment that follows the death of a loved one

grief

an intense emotional state that follows the death of a lover, friend, or relative

subjective well-being

general life satisfaction combined with frequent positive emotions & relatively few negative emotions